The COVID-19 (the illness that the coronavirus causes) outbreak in India is a catastrophe within the making akin to a number of disasters which have occurred up to now, e.g., 1984 Bhopal gasoline tragedy, 1999 Ersama cyclone. They begin as a well being disaster and rapidly morph right into a humanitarian and an financial disaster.
To grasp the COVID-19 pandemic, the next questions want solutions:
![Coronavirus Outbreak: Is the COVID-19 pandemic a black swan or a gray rhino event? — Part 1]()
The coronavirus strikes inside an contaminated individual and strikes with him. It's transmitted largely by means of his sneeze or cough droplets. Most hazardous conditions often have a single level for the hazard location, e.g., a volcano, with the receptors situated in a single space, e.g., a 10 km radius across the volcano. Since an contaminated individual is cellular and transmits the an infection to folks wherever they go, viral unfold is a multi-point hazard and receptor scenario with an nearly infinite variety of pathways between the hazard and receptors—a nightmare for danger controllers.
![Transmission and spread of COVID-19]()
As folks from Wuhan travelled, they carried the virus to different Chinese language provinces and international locations. Locations higher related to Wuhan have been affected earlier, e.g., Europe, then unfold the illness to different onward related locations. There's a seen correlation between COVID-19 incidence and inhabitants mobility (and carbon emissions). In India, states with higher inhabitants mobility--Maharashtra, Delhi and Tamil Nadu, have a considerably massive caseload in comparison with the Northeastern states. Within the US, coastal states with extra cellular populations and are higher related to the world, have greater caseloads.
![15]()
As soon as a rustic is seeded with ‘imported instances’ in Stage 1 of the illness, it progresses in a short while in three extra levels. In Stage 2, ‘native transmission,’ an imported case passes the virus to an area contact. In Stage 3, ‘neighborhood transmission,’ the an infection spreads in a neighborhood and may now not be traced to an imported case or their contacts. Stage Four is an epidemic.
Total global COVID-19 cases and deaths since January 2020
![22]()
Confirmed COVID-19 cases on 3 Ap 2020
![20]()
Confirmed COVID-19 deaths on 3 Ap 2020
The outcomes differ broadly—with no NPI, COVID-19 incidence vary from a low of two million to a excessive of 800 million. And with NPI the variation in case incidence is 650-242,000. Such a large distinction of their predictions is as a result of variation within the equations used, enter information used, and the assumptions made. A few of these research have already gone flawed of their predictions of incidence with NPI because the variety of instances in India is now over 10,000 reported instances and rising.
Considered one of these research that did city-specific predictions for Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bengaluru could but come nearer to what could occur within the coming weeks. The prediction for Delhi, the town with the utmost possible instances amongst these Four cities, is 14.5-110 lakhs with out NPI, and 2-97 lakhs with NPI. On the different finish, in Bengaluru which is more likely to have the least variety of instances amongst these cities, the anticipated variety of instances are 3.5-23 lakhs with out NPI and 0.7-22 lakhs with NPI. All of the research agree that with no NPI, the case numbers shall be very excessive.
Although the Imperial College study, revealed on 16 March, made predictions for Nice Britain (GB) and USA, it might have influenced the Indian authorities’s considering. The examine predicted that with no NPI, 81% of the GB and US populations could be contaminated, and GB and USA would have 0.51 and a couple of.2 million deaths, respectively. Their public well being care techniques could be overwhelmed and never be capable to deal with this case load, therefore a method shift was required. GB shifted gears drastically and jumped from no restrictions to nationwide lockdown per week after the Imperial Faculty examine was revealed. Two days later India adopted GB.
![Imperial College study predictions]()
To grasp why GB and India did such a U-turn at quick discover, it is very important perceive how danger mitigation is completed.
Not all six measures can be found for each hazard, e.g., a cyclone can't be eliminated or enclosed nor can people be faraway from its pathway. However people could be enclosed in a shelter or evacuated earlier than the cyclone makes landfall. The one methodology not obtainable for a coronavirus hazard is eradicating people and surfaces, e.g., chairs, as each are discovered all over the place (methodology #2 in Field 3). All 4 different strategies work just for a restricted time interval and in a restricted area.
![Flattening the curve]()
A suppression technique breaks the virus’ pathway and reversing its unfold by locking down communities, cities or perhaps a nation, and ordering everybody, barring important service staff, to remain house. This measure is along with all of the measures utilized in a mitigative technique.
A mitigation technique permits for the illness to unfold in a managed means within the inhabitants thereby permitting the inhabitants to achieve herd immunity, thus lowering the likelihood of a repeat outbreak. If the illness transmission is reasonably excessive, and the variety of instances exceeds the utmost capability of well being companies, it might be badly stretched and even breakdown.
By isolating everybody, a suppression technique reduces illness transmission, and instances to low ranges, permitting the well being companies to manage. With no vaccine or a first-time an infection no herd immunity is acquired by the inhabitants. There's then the potential of repeated illness outbreaks which would require suppression to be finished consecutively until a vaccine turns into obtainable or the virus weakens in time, The Imperial Faculty examine illustrates this course of for GB and USA (see figures and desk beneath).
ICU beds required/1 lakh population in GB for various combination of actions for mitigation and suppression strategies
16
6
![13]()
Mitigation strategy scenarios for GB indicating ICU bed requirement for various mitigation methods
![19]()
Suppression strategy scenarios for GB showing ICU bed requirements
GB has a surge capability of 0.08 ICU beds for 1,000 inhabitants. However the requirement for ICU beds for a mix of mitigation actions for the COVID-19 exceed GB’s ICU mattress surge capability by an element of 10-35 instances. Nevertheless, GB’s ICU beds surge capability met the projected ICU mattress demand if a suppression technique is used, the draw back being that these measures have to be in place for five months.
A hazard is a substance—poisonous chemical, virus; or vitality—ionizing radiation, earth’s, e.g., as is launched in an earthquake, that will trigger harm to people, or their life assist techniques prevalent within the surroundings. Hazards could also be pure, e.g., tornadoes or man-made, e.g., explosions. Hazardous could strike abruptly and with out a lot warning, e.g., earthquakes, giving no time for doing hazard management, or could act over time to trigger a gradual deterioration of the life assist techniques within the surroundings, e.g., world warming,
![box 1]()
A hazard travels by means of a pathway earlier than it strikes a receptor. Pathways could also be of by means of a single medium, e.g., as occurs in an explosion when an vitality launch is transmitted by means of air, or by means of a number of media, e.g., as occurs within the launch of mercury from thermal energy crops, the place the mercury travels first by means of air from the facility plant stack to grass, which is eaten by cattle, the place it goes into cattle milk, and from there into people.
A receptor is the item that the hazard hits after travelling by means of the pathway. A receptor could also be a human or any a part of the surroundings. Within the case of the Corona virus, the receptor is a human.
Most hazards are level sources, i.e., they emanate at a one level, e.g., a volcano or a flammable gasoline leak. And most receptors, whether or not human or environmental, are additionally level or space receptors, i.e., they're in a single space. Corona virus is a multi-point hazard as it may be current at innumerable locations and its receptors are additionally multi-point as folks and surfaces which may be contaminated are unfold all around the world.
![Virus hazard and recepters.]()
![Box 3]()
Not all 6 strategies can be found for all hazards, e.g., a cyclone can't be enclosed nor can people be faraway from the pathway of viruses. 5 actions can be found to scale back the chance of the Corona virus:
1. Take away hazard: The virus could be eliminated by washing palms or sanitizing surfaces. These measures work solely briefly as re-contamination is feasible, apart from it's unattainable to sanitize all surfaces.
2. Take away people: This motion just isn't attainable as people are very broadly unfold.
3. Enclose hazard: Contaminated individuals are put into isolation wards and people suspected to be contaminated are quarantined in order that the an infection is enclosed within the containment facility. However individuals outdoors the isolation ward or quarantine could also be contaminated.
4. Enclose people: Private protecting gear (PPE) could also be used to surround well being staff, however it's unattainable to have everybody use PPEs.
5. Enhance pathway distance: Social distancing by 1-2 m will increase the pathway between people and minimizes the possibilities of the virus in a contaminated individual’s cough or sneeze droplets reaching the opposite individual.
6. Break pathway: Closing academic establishments is a option to break the pathway. However the break is partial as there are different ways in which folks meet, e.g., at work, available in the market. Lockdowns are a extra full means of breaking the pathway as they reduce contact between contaminated individuals and surfaces and uninfected individuals by isolating everybody besides these concerned with important companies. Lockdowns embody shutting academic establishments, factories, business institutions, markets, public transport companies, and so on.
The writer is an environmental engineer with specialization in danger evaluation
Up to date Date: Apr 23, 2020 20:01:44 IST
Tags :
Coronavirus,
Coronavirus Outbreak,
Death Rate Of Coronavirus,
Economy,
Effects Of Pandemic,
Icu Beds,
Lockdown,
Pandemic,
Spread Of Coronavirus,
Testing,
Treatment,
Virus,
WHO
To grasp the COVID-19 pandemic, the next questions want solutions:
- What is going to COVID-19 unfold in India?
- How is India dealing with COVID-19? Is India ready for a COVID-19 outbreak?
- Is the COVID-19 pandemic a black swan or a grey rhino occasion? How can their impacts be mitigated?
- Why do such occasions recur? What essential coverage shifts are required?
In India, states with bigger populations have a excessive an infection case load than people who have much less inhabitants. Picture credit score: PTI
PART 1: COVID-19’s POSSIBLE SPREAD IN INDIA
Coronavirus unfold
The coronavirus is like another hazard. It takes a sure pathway and causes receptor harm. The receptor for the virus is invariably people. For some hazards, e.g., a twister, the receptor may be the surroundings to which it causes injury. Danger administration is the understanding of the interaction between a hazard, its pathway and the receptors it might strike and the affect it causes to them, with the intention to cut back danger the hazard poses to the receptors (see Field 1 for a proof of the dynamics between hazards, pathways and receptors).The coronavirus strikes inside an contaminated individual and strikes with him. It's transmitted largely by means of his sneeze or cough droplets. Most hazardous conditions often have a single level for the hazard location, e.g., a volcano, with the receptors situated in a single space, e.g., a 10 km radius across the volcano. Since an contaminated individual is cellular and transmits the an infection to folks wherever they go, viral unfold is a multi-point hazard and receptor scenario with an nearly infinite variety of pathways between the hazard and receptors—a nightmare for danger controllers.
Transmission and unfold of COVID-19
As soon as a rustic is seeded with ‘imported instances’ in Stage 1 of the illness, it progresses in a short while in three extra levels. In Stage 2, ‘native transmission,’ an imported case passes the virus to an area contact. In Stage 3, ‘neighborhood transmission,’ the an infection spreads in a neighborhood and may now not be traced to an imported case or their contacts. Stage Four is an epidemic.
World toll
On 14 April 2020, the variety of detected instances worldwide was 2 million with a doubling time of 13 days, and deaths attributed to coronavirus have been 1.2 lakhs. Detected instances and deaths are in exponential progress with no signal of slowing down.Total global COVID-19 cases and deaths since January 2020
| Date | Complete confirmed instances | Every day new confirmed instances | Complete confirmed deaths | Every day new confirmed deaths |
| 1 January 2020 | 27 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 February 2020 | 11,946 | 2,120 | 259 | 46 |
| 1 March 2020 | 67,024 | 1,821 | 2,979 | 58 |
| 1 April 2020 | 851,308 | 73,512 | 41,885 | 4,614 |
| 14 April 2020 | 2,082,418 | 73,966 | 126,601 | 6,983 |
Confirmed COVID-19 cases on 3 Ap 2020
Confirmed COVID-19 deaths on 3 Ap 2020
Bean counting: What number of Indians will catch the coronavirus within the close to future?
Simply earlier than India locked down on 25 March, two modelling research have been revealed that forecast the incidence of COVID-19 instances in India within the close to future with and with out non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPI), e.g., social distancing, for optimistic and pessimistic situations (see Field 2 for particulars). All research state that their outcomes have appreciable uncertainty, which is inherent to danger research the place little is understood in regards to the virus.The outcomes differ broadly—with no NPI, COVID-19 incidence vary from a low of two million to a excessive of 800 million. And with NPI the variation in case incidence is 650-242,000. Such a large distinction of their predictions is as a result of variation within the equations used, enter information used, and the assumptions made. A few of these research have already gone flawed of their predictions of incidence with NPI because the variety of instances in India is now over 10,000 reported instances and rising.
Considered one of these research that did city-specific predictions for Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bengaluru could but come nearer to what could occur within the coming weeks. The prediction for Delhi, the town with the utmost possible instances amongst these Four cities, is 14.5-110 lakhs with out NPI, and 2-97 lakhs with NPI. On the different finish, in Bengaluru which is more likely to have the least variety of instances amongst these cities, the anticipated variety of instances are 3.5-23 lakhs with out NPI and 0.7-22 lakhs with NPI. All of the research agree that with no NPI, the case numbers shall be very excessive.
Although the Imperial College study, revealed on 16 March, made predictions for Nice Britain (GB) and USA, it might have influenced the Indian authorities’s considering. The examine predicted that with no NPI, 81% of the GB and US populations could be contaminated, and GB and USA would have 0.51 and a couple of.2 million deaths, respectively. Their public well being care techniques could be overwhelmed and never be capable to deal with this case load, therefore a method shift was required. GB shifted gears drastically and jumped from no restrictions to nationwide lockdown per week after the Imperial Faculty examine was revealed. Two days later India adopted GB.
Imperial Faculty examine predictions
To grasp why GB and India did such a U-turn at quick discover, it is very important perceive how danger mitigation is completed.
Danger mitigation
There are six methods of eradicating or lowering the chance from pure or artifical hazard: 1) take away the hazard, 2) take away people and different receptors, 3) enclose the hazard, 4) enclose people or different receptors from its pathway, 5) improve the pathway size between the hazard and the receptors in order that the depth of the hazard decreases when it hits the receptor, 6) break the pathway (see Field 3: Danger mitigation).Not all six measures can be found for each hazard, e.g., a cyclone can't be eliminated or enclosed nor can people be faraway from its pathway. However people could be enclosed in a shelter or evacuated earlier than the cyclone makes landfall. The one methodology not obtainable for a coronavirus hazard is eradicating people and surfaces, e.g., chairs, as each are discovered all over the place (methodology #2 in Field 3). All 4 different strategies work just for a restricted time interval and in a restricted area.
Flattening the curve
In a virus outbreak, the illness tends to unfold rapidly in a inhabitants after it's seeded by an contaminated individual. A fast rise of instances within the ascendant section of the illness can typically overwhelm even a superb well being care system, leaving many sufferers with out satisfactory consideration. ICU beds and ventilators ran out in Italian hospitals in March 2020, and docs needed to make selections about whom to disclaim a ventilator. To keep away from overstretching the well being care system, illness management methods try to flatten the curve by beating down the height variety of instances and spreading them over an extended time interval.
Flattening the curve
Mitigation and suppression methods
The curve could be flattened utilizing both mitigation or a suppression technique, or generally a mix of each the place a mitigation technique is used countrywide and a suppression technique is utilized in native hotspots. A mitigation technique makes use of NPI to not interrupt transmission utterly, however to gradual it down, cut back well being affect and supply well being look after susceptible populations. It does this by home-isolating gentle instances, quarantining suspect instances, their households and contacts, hospitalizing extreme instances, utilizing social distancing, and presumably shutting academic establishments, and shutting borders with some or all international locations. The specificity of a circumstance determines the mixture of mitigation measures deployed.A suppression technique breaks the virus’ pathway and reversing its unfold by locking down communities, cities or perhaps a nation, and ordering everybody, barring important service staff, to remain house. This measure is along with all of the measures utilized in a mitigative technique.
Mitigation and suppression methods and their limitations
| Hazard management methodology | Actions | Technique | Limitations |
| Washing palms, sanitizing surfaces | Mitigation, Suppression | Restricted in time & area. Individual & surfaces could be re-contaminated, Different individuals & surfaces not sanitized could carry an infection |
| Not attainable | -- | -- |
| Isolate instances, quarantine suspected instances & individuals they contacted | Mitigation, Suppression | Restricted in time & area. Different individuals outdoors isolation/ quarantine could carry the an infection |
| Private protecting gear | Mitigation, Suppression | Can be utilized solely by well being staff |
| 5. Enhance pathway size | Hold social distance of 1-2 m between folks, no bodily contact | Mitigation, Suppression | Everybody could not observe social distancing or could not be capable to do it they stay & journey in crowded homes and transport |
| 6. Break pathway | Lockdown neighborhood/ cities/ districts/ country-- Everybody, besides important companies staff are remoted at house | Suppression | Social life and the financial system shall be impacted as provide chains of merchandise & companies are damaged. |
A mitigation technique permits for the illness to unfold in a managed means within the inhabitants thereby permitting the inhabitants to achieve herd immunity, thus lowering the likelihood of a repeat outbreak. If the illness transmission is reasonably excessive, and the variety of instances exceeds the utmost capability of well being companies, it might be badly stretched and even breakdown.
By isolating everybody, a suppression technique reduces illness transmission, and instances to low ranges, permitting the well being companies to manage. With no vaccine or a first-time an infection no herd immunity is acquired by the inhabitants. There's then the potential of repeated illness outbreaks which would require suppression to be finished consecutively until a vaccine turns into obtainable or the virus weakens in time, The Imperial Faculty examine illustrates this course of for GB and USA (see figures and desk beneath).
ICU beds required/1 lakh population in GB for various combination of actions for mitigation and suppression strategies
16
6
| Motion | ICU beds required per 1 lakh inhabitants | |
| Mitigation technique | Suppression technique | |
| Do nothing | 275 | 275 |
| Shut faculties & universities | 245 | |
| Case isolation | 190 | |
| Case isolation + family quarantine | 130 | |
| Case isolation + family quarantine + social distancing of >70 yr olds | 90 | |
| Case isolation + family quarantine + normal social distancing | ||
| College & college closure + case isolation + normal social distancing | ||
Mitigation strategy scenarios for GB indicating ICU bed requirement for various mitigation methods
Suppression strategy scenarios for GB showing ICU bed requirements
GB has a surge capability of 0.08 ICU beds for 1,000 inhabitants. However the requirement for ICU beds for a mix of mitigation actions for the COVID-19 exceed GB’s ICU mattress surge capability by an element of 10-35 instances. Nevertheless, GB’s ICU beds surge capability met the projected ICU mattress demand if a suppression technique is used, the draw back being that these measures have to be in place for five months.
Field 1: Danger administration
Danger administration is the understanding of the interaction between a hazard, its pathway and the receptors it might strike and the affect it causes to them, with the intention to cut back danger the hazard poses to the receptors.A hazard is a substance—poisonous chemical, virus; or vitality—ionizing radiation, earth’s, e.g., as is launched in an earthquake, that will trigger harm to people, or their life assist techniques prevalent within the surroundings. Hazards could also be pure, e.g., tornadoes or man-made, e.g., explosions. Hazardous could strike abruptly and with out a lot warning, e.g., earthquakes, giving no time for doing hazard management, or could act over time to trigger a gradual deterioration of the life assist techniques within the surroundings, e.g., world warming,
field 1
A receptor is the item that the hazard hits after travelling by means of the pathway. A receptor could also be a human or any a part of the surroundings. Within the case of the Corona virus, the receptor is a human.
Most hazards are level sources, i.e., they emanate at a one level, e.g., a volcano or a flammable gasoline leak. And most receptors, whether or not human or environmental, are additionally level or space receptors, i.e., they're in a single space. Corona virus is a multi-point hazard as it may be current at innumerable locations and its receptors are additionally multi-point as folks and surfaces which may be contaminated are unfold all around the world.
Virus hazard and recepters.
Field 2: Anticipated variety of COVID-19 instances in India—outcomes of two research revealed earlier than the 25 March lockdown and three research revealed after the lockdown
Research revealed earlier than the lockdown | ||||
| Examine title | Predictions and role of interventions for COVID-19 outbreak in India | COVID-19 for India Updates | ||
| Authors | D Ray, R Bhattacharyya, L Wang, M Salvatore, S Mohammed, A Halder, Y Zhou, P Music, S Purkayastha, D Bose, M Banerjee, V Baladandayuthapani, P Ghosh, B Mukherjee | E Klein, G Lin, Okay Tseng, E Schueller, G Kapoor, R Laxminarayan | ||
| Revealed on | 22 March 2020 | 24 Mar 2020 | ||
| Predicted instances | Interventions | No of anticipated instances & dates | Eventualities | No of anticipated instances & dates |
| No interventions | 2.2 million instances by mid-Might | Excessive trajectory-no impact of present lockdowns and a fast unfold | Complete peak variety of cases-25 crores by end-Apr | |
| Journey ban solely | 6.6 lakh instances by mid-Might | Medium trajectory-No impact of lockdown or temperature/ humidity sensitivity, according to information from Italy (extra possible situation) | Complete peak variety of cases-18 crores by mid-Might | |
| Journey ban + Social quarantine | 55,200 instances by mid-Might | Low trajectory-Decreased transmission, probably on account of temperature/ humidity sensitivity | Complete peak variety of cases-12.5 crores by mid-June | |
| Journey ban + Social quarantine + Lockdown | 13,800 instances by mid-Might | |||
A examine revealed after the lockdown | ||||
| Examine title | Age-structured impact of social distancing on the COVID-19 epidemic in India | Healthcare impact of COVID-19 epidemic in India: A stochastic mathematical model | ||
| Authors | R Singh, R Adhikari | Okay ChatterjeeK Chatterjee, A Kumar, S Shankar | ||
| Revealed on | 26 March 2020 | 2 Apr 2020 | ||
| Predicted instances | Interventions | No of anticipated instances & dates | Interventions | No of anticipated instances & dates |
| With out mitigation | Complete of 0.9 invoice instances, with a peak of 167 mill instances by end-June. Complete mortality of ~3.6 mill individuals. | Uninterrupted epidemic in India | Resulted in over 364 million instances & 1.56 million deaths, peak by mid-July | |
| Three consecutive lockdowns of 21, 28 & 18 days beginning 25 Mar, with two 5-day unlocked intervals between lockdowns; or a single 49-day lockdown beginning 25 March | 657 instances | Quick establishment of NPIs | Epidemic would possibly nonetheless be checked by mid-April 2020. It will then end in 241,974 whole infections, 10,214 hospitalizations, 2,121 ICU admissions and 1,081 deaths. | |
Anticipated variety of COVID-19 instances in Four main Indian metro hubs with and with out intervention
| Examine title | Prudent public health intervention strategies to control the coronavirus disease 2019 transmission in India: A mathematical model-based approach | |||||
| Authors | S Mandal, T Bhatnagar, N Arinaminpathy, A Agarwal, A Chowdhury, M Murhekar, R R Gangakhedkar, S Sarkar | |||||
| Revealed on | 28 March 2020 | |||||
| Predicted peak variety of instances | Intervention | Eventualities | Predicted peak variety of instances in lakhs (approx) | |||
| Delhi | Mumbai | Kolkata | Bengaluru | |||
| With out intervention | Pessimistic | 110 lakhs in 45 days | 47.5 lakhs in 50 days | 38 lakhs in 55 days | 23 lakhs in 50 days | |
| Optimistic | 14.5 lakhs in 210 days | 7 lakhs in 300 days | 5 lakhs in 300 days | 3.5 lakhs in 300 days | ||
| With intervention | Pessimistic | 97 lakhs in 45 days | 45 lakhs in 55 days | 33 lakhs in 55 days | 22 lakhs in 55 days | |
| Optimistic | 2 lakhs in 620 days | 1 lakh in 725 days | 0.7 lakhs in 725 days | 0.7 lakhs in 725 days | ||
Field 3
1. Take away hazard: The virus could be eliminated by washing palms or sanitizing surfaces. These measures work solely briefly as re-contamination is feasible, apart from it's unattainable to sanitize all surfaces.
2. Take away people: This motion just isn't attainable as people are very broadly unfold.
3. Enclose hazard: Contaminated individuals are put into isolation wards and people suspected to be contaminated are quarantined in order that the an infection is enclosed within the containment facility. However individuals outdoors the isolation ward or quarantine could also be contaminated.
4. Enclose people: Private protecting gear (PPE) could also be used to surround well being staff, however it's unattainable to have everybody use PPEs.
5. Enhance pathway distance: Social distancing by 1-2 m will increase the pathway between people and minimizes the possibilities of the virus in a contaminated individual’s cough or sneeze droplets reaching the opposite individual.
6. Break pathway: Closing academic establishments is a option to break the pathway. However the break is partial as there are different ways in which folks meet, e.g., at work, available in the market. Lockdowns are a extra full means of breaking the pathway as they reduce contact between contaminated individuals and surfaces and uninfected individuals by isolating everybody besides these concerned with important companies. Lockdowns embody shutting academic establishments, factories, business institutions, markets, public transport companies, and so on.
The writer is an environmental engineer with specialization in danger evaluation
Up to date Date: Apr 23, 2020 20:01:44 IST
Tags :
Coronavirus,
Coronavirus Outbreak,
Death Rate Of Coronavirus,
Economy,
Effects Of Pandemic,
Icu Beds,
Lockdown,
Pandemic,
Spread Of Coronavirus,
Testing,
Treatment,
Virus,
WHO
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